Education Resources

Education Resources at the College

The College of Education has developed or hosts the following educational resources suitable for parents and teachers:

Annenberg/CPB Online Video Library
The College of Education has partnered with Annenberg/CPB in its efforts to provide online, on-demand access to its enormous catalog of top-quality educational programming. Annenberg/CPB has digitized and made freely available a significant portion of its vast collection of teaching and professional development resources, including almost 1000 hours of video. The Learning Technology Center in the College of Education hosts a mirror site containing all of Annenberg/CPB’s video on demand resources.

Books R4 Teens
This site features in-depth reviews and teaching ideas for recently published books in young adult literature.

Elementary School Math Club
This site provides five plans for group activities that may be used by teachers or parents. The objective of the Elementary School Math Club is to stimulate children's mathematical curiosity. Hopefully, experiencing the wonders of math will result in a positive attitude toward the subject that will serve them well throughout their formal education and beyond.
Longhorn Legacy: 100 Years of Football Programs
This online exhibit of over 100 game programs is a collaborative effort between the University of Texas' Department of Intercollegiate Athletics, the H.J. Lutcher Stark Center for Physical Culture and Sports in the Department of Kinesiology and Health Education and the Center for American History. The site is designed to be used interactively with the wealth of historical images and written materials on the official UT football site. Be sure to click the links as you go through the web site so you can learn more about players, coaches and the traditions of UT football.

The Presidential Timeline
The Presidential Timeline provides a single point of access to an ever-growing selection of digitized assets from the collections of the twelve Presidential Libraries of the National Archives. Among these assets you’ll find documents, photographs, audio recordings, and video relating to the events of the presidents’ lives. The goal of the project is to make these resources readily and freely available to students, educators, and adult learners throughout the world. The Presidential Timeline was designed and developed by the Learning Technology Center in The University of Texas at Austin College of Education, in conjunction with the Presidential Libraries and Terra Incognita Productions.

Talking Over Books
A love of reading is one of the greatest gifts you can give a child, and this site provides a wide range of advice on how to introduce kids to books at a young age.

Teaching Educators About Media Project
This site provides media education lesson plans for select topics in high school history and government as well as media education resources that can be applied to additional topic areas. These lesson plans examine how media construct representations of important issues and events in social studies.

KITE Technology Integration Case Library
A knowledge repository for teachers and teacher educators that enables learning through sharing, communal understanding through storytelling, continuous exchange and creation of new knowledge, and collective problem solving among K-12 schools and teacher education programs.

Importance of Education

Importance of Education
The importance of education is quite clear. Education is the knowledge of putting one's potentials to maximum use. One can safely say that a human being is not in the proper sense till he is educated.

This importance of education is basically for two reasons. The first is that the training of a human mind is not complete without education. Education makes man a right thinker. It tells man how to think and how to make decision.

The second reason for the importance of education is that only through the attainment of education, man is enabled to receive information from the external world; to acquaint himself with past history and receive all necessary information regarding the present. Without education, man is as though in a closed room and with education he finds himself in a room with all its windows open towards outside world.

This is why Islam attaches such great importance to knowledge and education. When the Qur'an began to be revealed, the first word of its first verse was 'Iqra' that is, read. Education is thus the starting point of every human activity.

A scholar (alim) is accorded great respect in the hadith. According to a hadith the ink of the pen of a scholar is more precious than the blood of a martyr. The reason being that a martyr is engaged in defense work while an alim (scholar) builds individuals and nations along positive lines. In this way he bestows a real life to the world.
The Qur'an repeatedly asks us to observe the earth and the heavens. This instills in man a desire to learn natural science. All the books of hadith have a chapter on knowledge (ilm). In Sahih Bukhari there is a chapter entitled "The virtue of one who acquires ilm (learning) and imparts that to others."

How great importance is attached to learning in Islam can be understood from an event in the life of the Prophet. At the battle of Badr in which the Prophet gained victory over his opponents, seventy people of the enemy rank were taken prisoner. These prisoners of war were literate people. In order to benefit from their education the Prophet declared that if one prisoner teaches ten Medinan children how to read and write, this will serve as his ransom and he will be set free.
This was the first school in the history of Islam established by the Prophet himself with all its teachers being non-Muslims. Furthermore, they were all war prisoners. There was all the risk that after their release they will again create problems for Islam and Muslims. This Sunnah of the Prophet shows that education is to be received whatever the risk involved.
On the one hand Islam places great emphasis on learning, on the other, all those factors which are necessary to make progress in learning have provided by God. One of these special factors is the freedom of research. One example of it is that in Makkah, the birthplace of the Prophet, dates were not grown. Afterwards the Prophet migrated to Medina, the city of dates. One day the Prophet saw that some people were atop the date trees busy in doing something. On being asked what they were engaged in, they replied that they were pollinating.

The Prophet suggested them not to do so. The following year date yield was considerably very low. The Prophet enquired them of the reason. They told him that the date crop depended on pollination. Since he suggested them to do otherwise, they had refrained from that. The Prophet then told them to go on doing as they used to, and that, "You know the worldly matters better than me."

In this way, the Prophet of Islam separated scientific research from religion. This meant that in the world of nature, man must enjoy full opportunity to conduct free research and adopt the conclusions arrived at after the research. Placing such great emphasis on knowledge. This process began in Makkah, then it reached to Medina and Damascus, afterwards it found its center in Baghdad. Ultimately it entered Spain. Spain flourished with extraordinary progress made in various academic and scientific disciplines. This flood of scientific progress entered Europe and ultimately resulted in producing the modern scientific age.

The Concept of Education

The Meaning of Education

Recently, a university professor wrote a letter to the editor of the local newspaper. He commented that people shouldn't put too much weight on the recently released trends in SRA scores of the state's high school students. The professor went on to describe some of the unanswered questions about the nature and value of assessment. He mentioned that one of the problems with assessment was the ongoing disagreement on the very purpose of education.
A few days later, a scathing response was printed from a community member who questioned whether the University really wanted someone on their staff who didn't even know the purpose of education. Clearly, this person assumed that his definition of education was shared by all. What is the meaning of education?
Webster defines education as the process of educating or teaching now that's really useful, isn't it? Educate is further defined as "to develop the knowledge, skill, or character of Thus, from these definitions, we might assume that the purpose of education is to develop the knowledge, skill, or character of students. Unfortunately, this definition offers little unless we further define words such as develop, knowledge, and character.
What is meant by knowledge? Is it a body of information that exists "out there"apart from the human thought processes that developed it? If we look at the standards and benchmarks that have been developed by many states—or at E. D. Hirsch's list of information needed for Cultural Literacy (1), we might assume this to be the definition of knowledge. However, there is considerable research leading others to believe that knowledge arises in the mind of an individual when that person interacts with an idea or experience.
This is hardly a new argument. In ancient Greece, Socrates argued that education was about drawing out what was already within the student. (As many of you know, the word education comes from the Latin e-ducere meaning "to lead out.") At the same time, the Sophists, a group of itinerant teachers, promised to give students the necessary knowledge and skills to gain positions with the city-state.
There is a dangerous tendency to assume that when people use the same words, they perceive a situation in the same way. This is rarely the case. Once one gets beyond a dictionary definition—a meaning that is often of little practical value—the meaning we assign to a word is a belief, not an absolute fact. Here are a couple of examples.
“The central task of education is to implant a will and facility for learning; it should produce not learned but learning people. The truly human society is a learning society, where grandparents, parents, and children are students together.” ~Eric Hoffer“No one has yet realized the wealth of sympathy, the kindness and generosity hidden in the soul of a child. The effort of every true education should be to unlock that treasure.” ~Emma Goldman“The only purpose of education is to teach a student how to live his life-by developing his mind and equipping him to deal with reality. The training he needs is theoretical, i.e., conceptual. He has to be taught to think, to understand, to integrate, to prove. He has to be taught the essentials of the knowledge discovered in the past-and he has to be equipped to acquire further knowledge by his own effort.” ~Ayn Rand“The aim of education should be to teach us rather how to think, than what to think—rather to improve our minds, so as to enable us to think for ourselves, than to load the memory with the thoughts of other men.” ~Bill Beattie“The one real object of education is to leave a man in the condition of continually asking questions.” ~Bishop Creighton“The central job of schools is to maximize the capacity of each student.” ~Carol Ann Tomlinson
These quotations demonstrate the diversity of beliefs about the purpose of education. How would you complete the statement, "The purpose of education is..."? If you ask five of your fellow teachers to complete that sentence, it is likely that you'll have five different statements. Some will place the focus on knowledge, some on the teacher, and others on the student. Yet people's beliefs in the purpose of education lie at the heart of their teaching behaviors.
Despite what the letter writer might have wished, there is no definition of education that is agreed upon by all, or even most, educators. The meanings they attach to the word are complex beliefs arising from their own values and experiences. To the extent that those beliefs differ, the experience of students in today's classrooms can never be the same. Worse, many educators have never been asked to state their beliefs—or even to reflect on what they believe. At the very least, teachers owe it to their students to bring their definitions into consciousness and examine them for validity.
Purposes and Functions
To make matters more complicated, theorists have made a distinction between the purpose of education and the functions of education. A purpose is the fundamental goal of the process—an end to be achieved. Functions are other outcomes that may occur as a natural result of the process— byproducts or consequences of schooling. For example, some teachers believe that the transmission of knowledge is the primary purpose of education, while the transfer of knowledge from school to the real world is something that happens naturally as a consequence of possessing that knowledge—a function of education.
Because a purpose is an expressed goal, more effort is put into attaining it. Functions are assumed to occur without directed effort. For this reason it's valuable to figure out which outcomes you consider a fundamental purpose of education. Which of the following do you actually include in your planning?
Acquisition of information about the past and present: includes traditional disciplines such as literature, history, science, mathematics
Formation of healthy social and/orformal relationships among andbetween students, teachers, others
Capacity/ability to evaluate information and to predict future outcomes (decision-making)
Capacity/ability to seek out alternative solutions and evaluate them (problem solving)
Development of mental and physical skills: motor, thinking, communication, social, aesthetic
Knowledge of moral practices andethical standards acceptable by society/culture
Capacity/ability to recognize and evaluate different points of view
Respect: giving and receiving recognition as human beings
Indoctrination into the culture
Capacity/ability to live a fulfilling life
Capacity/ability to earn a living: career education
Sense of well-being: mental and physical health
Capacity/ability to be a good citizen
Capacity/ability to think creatively
Cultural appreciation: art, music, humanities
Understanding of human relations and motivations
Acquisition/clarification of values related to the physical environment
Acquisition/clarification of personal values
Self-realization/self-reflection: awareness of one’s abilities and goals
Self-esteem/self-efficacy

As Tom Peters reminds us, "What gets measured, gets done." Regardless of the high sounding rhetoric about the development of the total child, it is the content of assessments that largely drives education. How is the capacity/ability to think creatively assessed in today's schools? To what extent is the typical student recognized and given respect? How often are students given the opportunity to recognize and evaluate different points of view when multiple choice tests require a single 'correct' answer?

Teachers who hold a more humanistic view of the purpose of education often experience stress because the meaning they assign to education differs greatly from the meaning assigned by society or their institution. It is clear in listening to the language of education that its primary focus is on knowledge and teaching rather than on the learner. Students are expected to conform to schools rather than schools serving the needs of students.
Stopping to identify and agree upon a fundamental purpose or purposes of education is rare. One sees nebulous statements in school mission statements, but they are often of the “Mom, baseball, and apple pie” variety that offer little substance on which to build a school culture. Creating meaningful and lasting change in education is unlikely without revisiting this basic definition. At the very least, educators must be challenged to identify and reexamine their beliefs in the light of present knowledge.

It is time for the focus of education to shift from what's "out there—the curriculum, assessments, classroom arrangement, books, computers—to the fundamental assumptions about and definitions of education held by educators and policymakers. NASA did not send men to the moon by building on the chassis of a model T. In the same way, education cannot hope to move beyond its present state on the chassis of 18th century education.

Introduction to Education Research

Introduction to Education Research
Doing research can be a challenge for novice doctoral students. This tutorial provides a framework for education research by walking the tutorial takers through the research process. It helps students to familiarize themselves with resources and services available at the University Libraries. Tips and examples for developing research statements as well as conducting effective searches are also included. In addition, by utilizing database tutorials, students will learn how to navigate different online databases to find their research materials.

Research is the cornerstone of any science, including both the hard sciences such as chemistry or physics and the social (or soft) sciences such as psychology, management, or education. It refers to the organized, structured, and purposeful attempt to gain knowledge about a suspected relationship.
Many argue that the structured attempt at gaining knowledge dates back to Aristotle and his identification of deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning refers to a structured approach utilizing an accepted premise (known as a major premise), a related minor premise, and an obvious conclusion. This way of gaining knowledge has been called a syllogism, and by following downward from the general to the specific, knowledge can be gained about a particular relationship. An example of an Aristotelian syllogism might be:
Major Premise:
All students attend school regularly
Minor Premise:
John is a student
Conclusion:
John attends school regularly
In the early 1600s, Francis Bacon identified a different approach to gaining knowledge. Rather than moving from the general to the specific, Bacon looked at the gathering of specific information in order to make general conclusions. This type of reasoning is called inductive and unlike Aristotelian logic allows new major premises to be determined. Inductive reasoning has been adopted into the sciences as the preferred way to explore new relationships because it allows us to use accepted knowledge as a means to gain new knowledge. For example:
Specific Premises:
John, Sally, Lenny and Sue attended class regularly
Specific Premises:
John, Sally, Lenny, and Sue received high grades
Conclusion:
Attending class regularly results in high grades
Researchers combine the powers of deductive and inductive reasoning into what is referred to now as the scientific method. It involves the determination of a major premise (called a theory or a hypothesis) and then the analysis of the specific examples (research) that would logically follow. The results might look something like:
Major Premise:

Attending classes regularly results in high grades
Class Attendance:
(Suspected Cause)
Group 1:
John, Sally, Lenny and Sue attend classes regularly
Group 2:
Heather, Lucinda, Ling, and Bob do not attend classes regularly
Grades:
(Suspected Effect)
Group 1:
John, Sally Lenny, and Sue received A’s and B’s
Group 2:
Heather, Lucinda, Ling, and Bob received C’s and D’s

Conclusion:
Attending class regularly results in higher grades when compared with not attending class regularly (the Major Premise or Hypothesis is therefore supported)
Utilizing the scientific method for gaining new information and testing the validity of a major premise, John Dewey suggested a series of logical steps to follow when attempting to support a theory or hypothesis with actual data. In other words, he proposed using deductive reasoning to develop a theory followed by inductive reasoning to support it.

Education Standards & Curriculum Development

Assessed Standards of Education

Mathematics
Reading
Social Studies
Science
Writing
English to Speakers of Other Languages

Curriculum Development Theory
The idea of curriculum is hardly new - but the way we understand and theorize it has altered over the years - and there remains considerable dispute as to meaning. It has its origins in the running/chariot tracks of Greece. It was, literally, a course. In Latin curriculum was a racing chariot; currere was to run. A useful starting point for us here might be the definition offered by John Kerr and taken up by Vic Kelly in his standard work on the subject. Kerr defines curriculum as, 'All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school. (quoted in Kelly 1983: 10; see also, Kelly 1999). This gives us some basis to move on - and for the moment all we need to do is highlight two of the key features:
Learning is planned and guided. We have to specify in advance what we are seeking to achieve and how we are to go about it.
The definition refers to schooling. We should recognize that our current appreciation of curriculum theory and practice emerged in the school and in relation to other schooling ideas such as subject and lesson.
In what follows we are going to look at four ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice:
1. Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be transmitted.
2. Curriculum as an attempt to achieve certain ends in students - product.
3. Curriculum as process.
4. Curriculum as praxis.

Curriculum as a syllabus to be transmitted
Many people still equate a curriculum with a syllabus. Syllabus, naturally, originates from the Greek (although there was some confusion in its usage due to early misprints). Basically it means a concise statement or table of the heads of a discourse, the contents of a treatise, the subjects of a series of lectures. In the form that many of us will have been familiar with it is connected with courses leading to examinations - teachers talk of the syllabus associated with, say, the Cambridge Board French GSCE exam. What we can see in such documents is a series of headings with some additional notes which set out the areas that may be examined.
A syllabus will not generally indicate the relative importance of its topics or the order in which they are to be studied. In some cases as, those who compile a syllabus tend to follow the traditional textbook approach of an 'order of contents', or a pattern prescribed by a 'logical' approach to the subject, or - consciously or unconsciously - a the shape of a university course in which they may have participated. Thus, an approach to curriculum theory and practice which focuses on syllabus is only really concerned with content. Curriculum is a body of knowledge-content and/or subjects. Education in this sense, is the process by which these are transmitted or 'delivered' to students by the most effective methods that can be devised.

Where people still equate curriculum with a syllabus they are likely to limit their planning to a consideration of the content or the body of knowledge that they wish to transmit. 'It is also because this view of curriculum has been adopted that many teachers in primary schools', 'have regarded issues of curriculum as of no concern to them, since they have not regarded their task as being to transmit bodies of knowledge in this manner'.

Research, Planning and Development

Types of Research

Basic research discovers the underlying processes and systems that make a plant, animal, ecosystem, food system, community, or marketplace work. For example, basic research might seek to discover the genetic map of a plant or animal, or show how economic and human resources affect economic growth in rural areas.
Applied research expands on basic research findings to uncover practical ways in which new knowledge can be advanced to benefit individuals and society. Here, researchers might use a genetic map to develop gene therapies to treat human diseases or develop new programs to enhance community capital and stability in rural communities.
Rresearch may involve traditional, self-contained laboratory or field projects, or a combination of a traditional research project with education and extension activities. Such a so-called integrated project might have as a goal the reduction of diabetes in children through a community-based program that includes research, extension, and education components. Integrated projects are expected to generate new knowledge and/or apply existing knowledge quickly through the dissemination of information on specific issues where results may be visible in the short term.
Who Does the Research
CSREES funds researchers at land-grant institutions, at other institutions of higher learning, in federal agencies, or in the private sector.
CSREES has a unique relationship with the nation's land-grant universities and colleges, most of which came into being in the 1860s through federal land grants aimed at promoting agricultural research and education. Today, more than 100 land-grant institutions are scattered throughout the United States and its territories.
Much CSREES-sponsored research within the land-grant system is carried out by individual researchers. But because several states or regions may share climate, soil, market outlets, and other conditions, much research is also carried out by teams from several universities or other institutions through multistate research groups. These groups provide cooperative, coordinated attacks on problems of regional and national interest and may include specialists from several land-grant institutions, the USDA Agricultural Research Service, and one or more of the agricultural experiment stations located in every state.

Research Program Development and Management
Research and integrated research-education-extension funding opportunities are initiated by Congressional legislation, with the level of funding then determined by Congressional appropriations passed into law.
CSREES informs Congress of emerging research trends and needs, for example through the publication of white papers and other documents and reports. CSREES provides feedback to Congress on the impact of funded research upon request and publishes information throughout this Web site on results and impacts of completed and ongoing research.
Once the legislation is passed, CSREES' scientific staff translates the legislation into a comprehensive, high-priority research or integrated program. National program leaders from across CSREES work together in teams to share insights they gain from stakeholder input and from their individual pursuit of knowledge and information. This ensures the broadest perspective in developing or enhancing a CSREES research or integrated program that is focused on national priorities that are in line with the Congressional mandates. Based on this information, CSREES scientific staff drafts a request for applications (RFA), which is reviewed by policy and legislative experts for compliance with Congressional intent and, upon approval, is released publicly.

Each RFA may generate from 2 to more than 600 applications, which then undergo a rigorous review process. That review is conducted by a panel of 3 to 25 individuals with international-level expertise in the field in question. These panels review each application, evaluating it based on its scientific merits and how well it addresses the research priorities determined by Congress and the CSREES stakeholder input process, and the quality of the facilities and researchers who would conduct the project. A summary of the panel review for each eligible application is recorded, and the panel recommends whether or not it should be funded.
Monitoring research and other projects funded by CSREES is a critical part of USDA stewardship of taxpayer dollars. Researchers are required to file annual reports and document their spending to CSREES. These annual reports are reviewed by scientific staff and posted on the public Web site to keep the public informed of research activity and developments. National program leaders and other scientific staff visit research sites and keep in touch with researchers on a routine basis to monitor progress.

Education Research Project

Education Research Project
What is the Education Research Project?
Education Research Project is a national, independent research organization that conducts research on educational products, services, and trends for public and private institutions on a national, regional, and local basis. Since 1990, the Education Research Project has worked to discover what you (the front-line educator, supervisor, principal, or administrator) find works or doesn't work -- and what's needed or not needed -- in today's classrooms. Our work is solely for research purposes, does not involve sales of any kind, and guarantees protection of participants' names and privacy.

Research Projects Categories

The following details provide additional information on research activities conducted in Education across all areas.

Projects:

School Reform
Standards Assessment and Accountability
Strategic Planning for Education
Principles, Teachers and Teaching
Higher Education and Training
Early Childhood and Special Education

School Reform
Evaluation of Comprehensive School Reform Models. Analyzed the implementation and effectiveness of comprehensive or "whole school" reforms in American education.
Evaluation of the Edison Schools Program. Evaluated the privately owned but publicly funded Edison schools model in the United States. Provided systematic comparison of Edison schools with similar public schools.
National Analysis of U.S. Charter Schools. Charter schools receive public funding but operate free from many traditional public school rules. This national project identified what is working well and not so well in charter schools in order to promote best practices.
Evaluation of the New York City Social Promotion Policy. New York City ended social promotion and adopted a series of policies to aid children at risk of failing. RAND is evaluating this policy's effects on student achievement.
Evaluation of Cognitive Tutor Model. Using random control trials, RAND is assessing the effect of a computer-based instructional technology on student learning.

Standard Assessment and Accountability
The Use of Value-Added Modeling to Assess Growth in Achievement. Pioneered work on value-added methods, which compare students' test scores over time in order to identify teachers and schools that perform above expectations.
Standardized Testing in Arabic. Collaborated with international contractors to develop the world's first independent standardized tests offered to students in Arabic.
National Longitudinal Study of No Child Left Behind. Led the Congressionally-mandated study of NCLB. The five-year study used national surveys to measure implementation and test scores to assess the effects of this major reform.
Implementation of Standards-based Accountability. Complementing the project listed above, examined the implementation of No Child Left Behind in three states focusing on the subjects of mathematics and science.

Strategic Planning for Education
Assessment and Implications of Thirty Years of the California Public Schools. Examined the history and status of the K-12 California schools across all functions and compared them to other states to identify progress and recommend future strategies.
Evaluation of Reform Initiatives in Syria. Examined the relationships among Syria's education system, society, and economy. Evaluated reform plans and recommended strategies for improvement.
Design and Implementation of Comprehensive Standards-based K-12 Education Reform in Qatar. Analyzed the existing K-12 education system and recommended options for improvement. Provided implementation support for the chosen reforms with organization building, recruitment of contractors and senior staff, and continuous evaluation.
District Downsizing in Pittsburgh. Using sophisticated statistical analysis, rank-ordered schools in terms of their contribution to student outcomes to inform decisionmaking on which to close.

Principles, Teachers and Training
Principal Incentive Program in Pittsburgh. Helped design and is now evaluating the principal pay-for-performance system in Pittsburgh Public Schools.
Measuring Teacher Quality in Los Angeles. Combining several major data sets, currently investigating the relationships between teachers' certification and licensure, other teacher background characteristics and student achievement.
Incentives to Promote Teacher Quality in Mexico. Evaluated the Carrera Magisterial program at its ten-year mark and provided recommendations for improvement. The project was the first Mexican program evaluation awarded to a non-Mexican organization.
New Instructional Practices in Mathematics and Science. In a series of projects, documented new teaching methods and related them to student achievement on a variety of test measures.
Assessing the Implementation and Impact of Teachers for a New Era. Tracked the progress of the Carnegie Corporation's efforts to improve teacher preparation in colleges of education and documented the challenges involved in changing them.
Evaluating California's Class-Size Reduction Initiative. Evaluated a statewide program to reduce class sizes for kindergarten through grade three.
Gains Analysis for Use in Teacher Performance Assessments. Currently developing and testing new statistical methods to use student test scores and other inputs to assess teacher performance.

Higher Education and Training
Supply and Demand for E-Skills in Europe. Surveyed the employer demand for skills related to information and communications technology and the educational opportunities to acquire them.
A European Vocational Learning System for the 21st Century. Outlined key attributes of a sound vocational education system in the United Kingdom and recommended government policies to best meet future needs.
University Reform. Analyzed the organization and its performance to modernize and improve the university. Provided specific strategies, including the establishment of an independent governance structure, a common core curriculum, and performance management of faculty.
Strategic Planning for Higher Education in Qatar. Used multiple sources of data to understand the links between higher education, labor markets, and society's needs. Recommended a strategy for developing new institutions and making the best use of foreign scholarships.
Evaluation of Brain Korea 21 Graduate Student Training in South Korea. Developed a data-based approach to evaluating the Brain Korea 21 program, which funds graduate training at South Korea's universities.
In Pursuit of Prestige: Strategy and Competition in United States Higher Education. Developed a new approach to understanding the challenges and successes in American higher education, using industry analysis of the role of markets, strategy, and competition in generating prestige.
The Collegiate Learning Assessment: Measuring Student Skills Achieved in Higher Education. Developed measures of the critical thinking and reasoning skills students should acquire in college to contribute to the development of a test now in use by more than two hundred American colleges and universities to assess the value the institutions add to their students' education.

Early Childhood and Special Education
State Scale-Up of Universal Preschool Education. Documented state policies and their consequences in the movement toward universal preschool.
Early Identification of Special Educational Needs. Compared children with special needs before and after starting school to provide policy recommendations to promote early identification of special needs.
Understanding the Effects of Early Education on Later Achievement. Explored the impact of full-day and half-day kindergarten on later achievement through the fifth grade. Identified important non-cognitive indicators of school readiness and later achievement.

Technical Career-based Education

Technical Education---From India and Beyond

Wanted: College graduates with degrees in information technology, accounting, finance and marketing research. Strong sales background preferred. Good speaking skills a must. Recent graduates who fit that description will be hot commodities in today's job market.The positive hiring trend that started in 1999 is continuing till today, with many opportunities being created by small and midsize companies, according to a survey of employers by the technical education Pune board. What's more, new college graduates can look forward to significant increases in starting salaries. "It's good out there," said dean of the Business School at Pune University. "Kids can sometimes have multiple job offers."In the Technical Education Pune board survey, 48% of college career-service offices reported an increase in the number of on-campus interviews being conducted by employers this year. "We certainly have gone back and recruited from colleges in the past year and we haven't done that in five years," said president of Effective Management Systems Inc.On-campus interviews were conducted at Pune University by 360 employers during the 2005-'06 school year, a 29% increase over the previous year, said director of the UW Business Career Center. "We still have companies coming this week, and it's the last week of classes," he said. "The big change we're seeing is that more companies are hiring on a just-in-time basis."The highest demand is for information technology and computer science graduates. The survey found that 53% of the job offers this year have gone to graduates with technical degrees, up from 45% last year. These graduates are commanding starting salaries averaging $34,565. Management information systems majors at Pune University are getting the most interviews and job offers, agreed director of the UWM career development center. Accounting and finance graduates also are in demand. Starting salary offers for accounting graduates are averaging $28,971, 3.7% higher than last year.The ideal for many employers is a graduate who combines accounting or finance knowledge with a strong background in computers. That's the combination everybody wants. It's equivalent to having a 300-pound tackle who can run the 40 in four seconds.A combination of technical and financial knowledge "is a good marriage for us," said president and chief operating officer of Fiserv Inc., the Brookfield firm that manages checking accounts and performs other back-office services for banks, thrifts and credit unions.Graduates with sales and marketing backgrounds also are finding plenty of opportunities.Employers said they are looking for more than good grades and practical degrees, however. "We are looking for people who can work with teams and projects for the computer fields," said associate director of employment at Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Co.Communication skills are important the ability to generate documents that relate to projects, that get results that are persuasive. Employers are looking more and more for top-quality applicants who can perform immediately. Fiserv prefers to hire students who have completed internships, said the president of technical education Pune board.

Medical Education

Medical Education

(Medical e-Learning)

Increasingly, Medical Education around the world is being supported by online teaching, usually within Learning Management Systems (LMSs) or Virtual Learning Environment (VLEs). Research areas into online medical education are wide-ranging, and include.
The roles of the participants (student, teacher, administrators)
Content generation, especially in a wide range of media

The use of LMSs, VLEs and other systems, and open-source vs. proprietary, methods of interaction
The use online medication education in Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
Practical applications, virtual patients
Distance learning
Assessment
Electronic Portfolios (e-Portfolios)
Mobile Learning (M-Learning)
Problems with technology
Accessibility
The Politics and Psychology of e-learning
Legal and Ethical Issues
Economics
Design Issues
Standards and Specifications

Post-graduate education
Following completion of entry-level training, newly graduated doctors are often required to undertake a period of supervised practice before full registration is granted; this is most often of one year duration and may be referred to as "internship" or "provisional registration" or residency.
Further training in a particular field of medicine may be undertaken. In some jurisdictions this is commenced immediately following completion of entry-level training, whilst other jurisdictions require junior doctors to undertake generalist (unstreamed) training for a number of years before commencing specialisation.
Increasingly education theory itself is becoming an integral part of postgraduate medical training. Formal qualifications in education are becoming the norm for Medical School educators who are becoming increasingly accountable for their students.

Media Education

Media Education introduction

(1) Providing community outreach, public programs, and educational services and multimedia curriculum resources targeted to the needs of youth and local school and after-school educators; and
(2) Developing a multidisciplinary research agenda to explore the broad educational impact of media and technology, with a focus on media literacy education To accomplish these goals, we offer workshops, staff development and partnerships that bring media literacy education to children, young people and adults. We are interested in the cognitive, social and behavioral impact of media literacy education as it develops in the family and in formal and informal educational settings. We address policy issues that affect the quality of teaching and learning about media and popular culture.
The Media Education Lab at Temple University is one of a small handful of research university programs that focuses specifically on the intersections of media studies, communication and education. Graduate and undergraduate students are able to take advantage of the ongoing research programs and are active participants in all of the programs of the Media Education Lab.

Teachers Training & Education

Teachers Education Training

Self-enrichment teachers provide instruction in a wide variety of subjects that students take for fun or self-improvement. Some teach a series of classes that provide students with useful life skills, such as cooking, personal finance, and time management. Others provide group instruction intended solely for recreation, such as photography, pottery, and painting. Many others provide one-on-one instruction in a variety of subjects, including dance, singing, or playing a musical instrument. Some teachers conduct courses on academic subjects, such as literature, foreign language, and history, in a non-academic setting. The classes self-enrichment teachers give seldom lead to a degree and attendance is voluntary, but dedicated, talented students sometimes go on to careers in the arts.
Self-enrichment teachers may have styles and methods of instruction that differ greatly. Most self-enrichment classes are relatively informal. Some classes, such as pottery or sewing, may be largely hands-on, with the instructor demonstrating methods or techniques for the class, observing students as they attempt to do it themselves, and pointing out mistakes to students and offering suggestions to improve techniques. Other classes, such as those involving financial planning or religion and spirituality, may center on lectures or might rely more heavily on group discussions. Self-enrichment teachers may also teach classes offered through religious institutions, such as marriage preparation or classes in religion for children.
Many of the classes that self-enrichment educators teach are shorter in duration than classes taken for academic credit; some finish in 1 or 2 days or several weeks. These brief classes tend to be introductory in nature and generally focus on only one topic—for example, a cooking class that teaches students how to make bread. Some self-enrichment classes introduce children and youth to activities, such as piano or drama, and may be designed to last anywhere from 1 week to several months.
Many self-enrichment teachers provide one-on-one lessons to students. The instructor may only work with the student for an hour or two a week, but tells the student what to practice in the interim until the next lesson. Many instructors work with the same students on a weekly basis for years and derive satisfaction from observing them mature and gain expertise. The most talented students may go on to paid careers as craft artists, painters, sculptors, dancers, singers, or musicians.
All self-enrichment teachers must prepare lessons beforehand and stay current in their fields. Many self-enrichment teachers are self employed and provide instruction as a business. As such, they must collect any fees or tuition and keep records of students whose accounts are prepaid or in arrears. Although not a requirement for most types of classes, teachers may use computers and other modern technologies in their instruction or to maintain business records.
Work environment. Few self-enrichment education teachers are full-time salaried workers. Most either work part time or are self-employed. Some have several part-time teaching assignments, but it is most common for teachers to have a full-time job in another occupation, often related to the subject that they teach, in addition to their part-time teaching job. Although jobs in this occupation are primarily part time and pay is low, most teachers enjoy their work because it gives them the opportunity to share a subject they enjoy with others.
Many classes for adults are held in the evenings and on weekends to accommodate students who have a job or family responsibilities. Similarly, self-enrichment classes for children are usually held after school, on weekends, or during school vacations.
Students in self-enrichment programs attend by choice so they tend to be highly motivated and eager to learn. Students also often bring their own unique experiences to class, which can make teaching them rewarding and satisfying. Self-enrichment teachers must have a great deal of patience, however, particularly when working with young children.

Training & Other Qualifications for Advancement

The main qualification for self-enrichment teachers is expertise in their subject area, but requirements vary greatly with the type of class taught and the place of employment.
Education and training. In general, there are few educational or training requirements for a job as a self-enrichment teacher beyond being an expert in the subject taught. To demonstrate expertise, however, self enrichment teachers may be required to have formal training in disciplines, such as art or music, where specific teacher training programs are available. Prospective dance teachers, for example, may complete programs that prepare them to teach many types of dance—from ballroom to ballet. Other employers may require a portfolio of a teacher’s work. For example, to secure a job teaching a photography course, an applicant often needs to show examples of previous work. Some self-enrichment teachers are trained educators or other professionals who teach enrichment classes in their spare time. In many self-enrichment fields, however, instructors are simply experienced in the field, and want to share that experience with others.
Other qualifications. In addition to knowledge of their subject, self-enrichment teachers should have good speaking skills and a talent for making the subject interesting. Patience and the ability to explain and instruct students at a basic level are important as well, particularly for teachers who work with children.
Advancement. Opportunities for advancement in this profession are limited. Some part-time teachers are able to move into full-time teaching positions or program administrator positions, such as coordinator or director. Experienced teachers may mentor new instructors.

Educational Discourse System

Critical Discourse Analysis

Critical discourse analysis is a contemporary approach to the study of language and discourses in social institutions. Drawing on poststructuralist discourse theory and critical linguistics, it focuses on how social relations, identity, knowledge and power are constructed through written and spoken texts in communities, schools and classrooms. This article describes the historical contexts and theoretical precedents for sociological models for the study of language, discourse and text in education. It then outlines key terms, assumptions and practices of critical discourse analysis. It concludes by describing unresolved issues and challenges for discourse analysis and sociology of education.
1. Language & Discourse in Contemporary Education
2. Poststructuralist and Postmodern Discourse Theory
3. Educational Applications of Discourse Analysis

4. Critical Discourse Analysis

5. Conclusion

1. Language and Discourse in Contemporary Education

In a context of unprecedented educational expansion and population growth, postwar sociology of education focused urgently on issues around institutional structure, the production of skilled workers, and increased educational access and participation. By the 1960s, attempts to explain and redress educational inequality for minority and lower socioeconomic groups generated major debates in sociolinguistics and the ethnography of communication. Much of that work focussed on language development and literacy acquisition as key factors in differential student achievement and the intergenerational reproduction of educational inequality. Debates over the role of social class- specific "speech codes", "linguistic deficits", the educational consequences of multilingualism, and the institutional status of non-standard English are still not fully resolved.
Some fifty years later, educators face the challenges of "new times" (Hall 1996): new cultural practices and media texts, hybrid cultural identities, emergent social formations and institutions, and changing structures of work and economy. In postindustrial and newly industrialising nation states, the rapidity and depth of many of these changes have drawn anew many sociologists' attention to language, texts and discourses. There is an increasing recognition that these now form the central media of community life, education and work.
Large-scale immigration and the emergence of multicultural, multilingual nation states have marked the postwar era. In urban and suburban areas, schools and educators are facing new student bodies and rapidly changing community demographic profiles. These new conditions have called into question the relevance and efficacy of longstanding administrative, curriculum, instructional and evaluation practices, many of which were developed in early and mid-century secular school systems designed for monocultural, homogenous nation-states. The recognition and enfranchisement of linguistic and cultural minority students has generated a host of practical issues around new dynamics of ethnic, cultural and gender difference in communities, families and institutional life, differential power in pedagogic relations in classrooms, and the knowledge and epistemological claims of historically disenfranchised groups over what should count as curriculum knowledge (see Apple 1996).
At the same time, the commodification of Western popular culture and the multinational globalisation of economies have changed the patterns and practices of work and leisure in many communities. In an emergent "postfordist" economic and sociological context, new industrial conditions and information technologies have begun to alter the requisites and parameters of what might count as educationally produced skilled labour. In service, information and media sectors of the economy, the exchange of symbols, discourses and texts have become key modes of value and exchange. Current definitions of educationally produced skills, competences and knowledges appear to be in transition, with the emergent requisites of new technologies and reorganised labour practices and markets making new demands on academic and vocational education. In response, research and theory in many areas of the social sciences and applied human services have shifted from a focus on traditional labour markets to an analysis of the economic and cultural consequences of new modes of information.
These conditions raise questions about the relevance and value of the structures and practices of early and mid-twentieth century schooling. These include questions about apparent disjunctions between community and school cultures; the appropriateness of curricular, instructional models for new student populations; and the practical requirements and challenges of new workplaces and civic spheres where these students live and work. However, many prevailing social and cultural theories of education and their affiliated practices are based on historical critiques of the industrial-era school and work, and sociological analyses of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century monocultural, monolingual nation state. The move towards discourse analytic approaches to education thus begins from the assumption that many of these challenges can only be addressed by a focus on how language, discourse and text figure in educational processes, practices and outcomes (New London Group 1996).

2. Poststructuralist and Postmodern Discourse Theory

The development of the "new" sociology of education in the early 1970s was a key moment in the application of Western social philosophy and sociology to educational theory and problems. Phenomenological, symbolic interactionist and neomarxian approaches to the study of identity, knowledge and institutional change in turn led to the development and application of various interpretive methods in educational research. These include action research, literary analysis, revisionist historiography and critical ethnography. Yet these various approaches are often conflated, erroneously, with later poststructuralist and postmodern social theory under the general category of "critical theory".
By this account, social institutions such as schools and universities are comprised by and through discourses. Discourses make up a dense fabric of spoken, written and symbolic texts of institutional bureaucracies (e.g., policies, curriculum documents, forms) and their ubiquitous face-to-face encounters (e.g., classroom interaction, informal talk). Within these institutions, human subjects are defined and constructed both in generic categories (e.g., as "children" and "teachers") and in more specialised and purposive historical categories (e.g., as "professionals", "adolescents", "linguistic deficit", "preoperational"). These discourse constructions act both as institutional "technologies of power", implemented and enforced by official authorisation, and they act as "technologies of the self" (Foucault 1980), internalised means for the self-discipline of action, practice and identity. According to Foucault, these technologies potentially have both productive and negative material, bodily and spatial consequences for human subjects and communities.
While Foucault's work shifts our attention to the regulatory nature of discourses, Derrida questioned whether any cultural texts can have intrinsic authority or canonical status as accounts of `truths' about the phenomenal world. That is, Derrida's approach to philosophic and literary "deconstruction" queries whether definitive or authoritative interpretations are possible in the first place. All texts are comprised by a dynamic play of "differance" which necessarily renders them polysemous: multiple and potentially quite idiosyncratic meanings can be generated by readers in particular social contexts. Each text's distinctive features and differences thus are reconstructed and reconstituted into distinctive "readings" in "local institutional sites" (Baker and Luke 1991).
Poststructuralist work thus forms a critique of ontology and epistemology in empirical approaches to social science. It makes the case that: (a) all inquiry is by definition a form of discourse analysis; and (b) all research consists of a `reading' and `rewriting' of a series of texts from a particular historical and epistemological standpoint. In so doing, it provides a radically different perspective on students and teachers, policy and curriculum, schools and classrooms. If we accept its premises, then an appropriate focus of sociological studies would be on how the texts of schooling construct such taken for granted phenomena as individuals, skills, knowledges and institutions. At the same time, it raises significant methodological questions about the status of data and the epistemological standpoint of the educational researcher. Given the primacy of discourse, the social facts studied by sociologists are constructed artefacts of researchers' own discourses and `namings', and any data collected in the field needs to be treated as a `readable' text, subject to interpretation.
This theoretical shift has the potential for destabilising dominant paradigms and theories. Prevailing models of educational research and practice comprise what Lyotard (1984) has called "grand narratives": stories about human progress and scientific development that prescribe, rather than describe in any empirical sense, what will count as individual and institutional development. Consequently, the very foundational theories that have been used to study the child, education, curriculum and instruction, may be viewed as discourses, taken-for-granted `truths' that "systematically form the objects about which they speak" (Foucault 1972 p. 49). Following a postmodern radical scepticism towards "metanarratives", no disciplinary or commonsense source of "truth claims" would be exempt.
Poststructuralist theory thereby encourages a counter-ontological critique of those broad theories of human development, social agency and social structure that have been used in the last century to analyse and develop educational interventions. In this way, it enables a self-reflexive critique of the modernist and industrial-era administrative and curricular models mentioned at the onset of this article. At the same time, it encourages the further development of experimental, interpretive modes of inquiry to examine new educational phenomena.
The insight of philosophic poststructuralism, then, is that there is no educational truth, practice or phenomena that can be studied outside of discourse. By such an account, educational institutions could be seen as complex sites constructed by and through discourses expressed in various texts: from policy statements and textbooks to face-to-face talk in classrooms. These texts are seen as "heteroglossic" articulations of various historical, class and cultural interests contending for social power and capital. The question of how to collect, read and interpret these texts and how to analyse and situate their "symbolic power" is complex. It requires the study of the diverse "linguistic markets" and "social fields" where educationally acquired competence is used. For while poststructuralism provides a wide-ranging epistemological critique of how discourse works, Foucault and Derrida assiduously avoided offering more than broad theoretical directions for the study of discourse in specific local institutions.

3. Educational Applications of Discourse Analysis

As noted at the onset of this article, the heralded "linguistic turn" in the social sciences had a significant impact on educational research in the postwar era. Discourse analysis describes an interdisciplinary family of methodologies and approaches to the study of language and text that draws variously upon linguistics, literary theory and cultural studies, philosophy of language, sociology and psychology. Initially, the term was used to in the 1950s to describe linguistic analysis of semantic structures above the level of the sentence. In the 1960s and 70s, it was applied by English teachers to the systematic analyses of the error patterns of second language learners' spoken and written texts and by educational psychologists to the development of cognitive text processing models.
Critical discourse analysis refers to the use of an ensemble of techniques for the study of textual practice and language use as social and cultural practices (Fairclough, 1992b). It builds from three broad theoretical orientations. First, it draws from poststructuralism the view that discourse operates laterally across local institutional sites, and that texts have a constructive function in forming up and shaping human identities and actions. Second, it draws from Bourdieu's sociology the assumption that actual textual practices and interactions with texts become "embodied" forms of "cultural capital" with exchange value in particular social fields. Third, it draws from neomarxist cultural theory the assumption that these discourses are produced and used within political economies, and that they thus produce and articulate broader ideological interests, social formations and movements within those fields (see Hall 1996).
The practical techniques of critical discourse analysis are derived from various disciplinary fields. Work in pragmatics, narratology and speech act theory argues that texts are forms of social action that occur in complex social contexts. Research and theory in systemic functional linguistics (Halliday 1985) shows how linguistic forms can be systematically related to social and ideological functions. Critical discourse analysis uses analytic tools from these fields to address persistent questions about larger, systemic relations of class, gender and culture. In educational research, this work has been turned to the examination of how knowledge and identity are constructed across a range of texts in the institutional "site" of the school.
Critical discourse analysis begins from the assumption that systematic asymmetries of power and resources between speakers and listeners, readers and writers can be linked to their unequal access to linguistic and social resources. In this way, the presupposition of critical discourse analysis is that institutions like schools act as gatekeepers of mastery of discursive resources: the discourses, texts, genres, lexical and grammatical structures of everyday language use. What this suggests is a reframing of questions about educational equality in terms of how systematically distorted and ideological communication may set the conditions for differential institutional access to discursive resources, the very educational competences needed for social and economic relations in information-based economies.

4. Conclusion

Discourses constitute what Wittgenstein called "forms of life", ubiquitous ways of knowing, valuing and experiencing the world. They can be used for the assertion of power and knowledge and they can be used for purposes of resistance and critique. They are used in everyday local texts for building productive power and knowledge and for purposes of regulation and normalisation, for the development of new knowledge and power relations, and for hegemony. If we accept the postructuralist view of primacy of discourse, than critical discourse analysis is necessary for describing and interpreting, analysing and critiquing social life.
Critical discourse analysis provides an interdisciplinary analytic approach and a flexible metalanguage for the sociological analysis of texts and discourses. The emergence of critical discourse analysis has at least three interrelated implications for educational studies and the sociology of education. First, it marks out a retheorisation of educational practice. Educational theory and practice historically has relied on foundational metaphors of the unfolding child, the industrial machine, the individual rationalist mind, and, most recently, the digital computer. The metaphor offered by poststructuralism is that of the text as an interpretable phenomena that is constitutive of all educational and intellectual endeavour.
Second, critical discourse analysis marks out a new set of methodological techniques and possibilities. The assumption shared by many quantitative and qualitative approaches to sociological research has been that observable realities, truths and social facts have an essential existence prior to discourse. Critical discourse analysis begins from a recognition of language and discourse as non-transparent, opaque ways of studying and representing the world. It recasts all data and research artefacts as discourse. It raises and addresses the question of self-reflexivity by making researchers' own uses of discourse a key problematic in design and inquiry.
Third, critical discourse analysis marks out the grounds for rethinking pedagogical practices and outcomes as discourse. The assumption underlying many postwar curriculum development and instructional models is that the purpose of education is to produce behaviours, skills and competences required for industrial-era workplaces and civic spheres. Critical discourse analysis suggests that mastery of discourse is the principle educational process and outcome, and that this mastery can be normatively reshaped to introduce teachers and students to critical analyses of text-based, postmodern cultures and economies.
This article began by describing the challenges posed by information-based, multicultural economies and nation states for the sociology of education. Critical discourse analysis provides a means for educational sociology to examine new phenomena, including:
(a) New workplaces, communities and civic spheres: Shifting population demographics, new social geographies, multiculturalism and new information technologies are altering social relations and how discourse is learned and used. There is a need for detailed study of new textual demands and practices in these institutions.
(b) New texts, genres and discourses: The conditions are encouraging the articulation and commodification of new, unprecedented modes of expression. There is a need for the study and critique of hybrid written forms (e.g., newspaper formats that emulate TV "soundbites"), new popular cultural forms of textual expression (e.g., rock videos, infomercials), electronic genres (e.g., email, home pages), and "creolised" intercultural and interlingual communications.
(c) New social identities: In these contexts, youth have access to unprecedented symbolic and material means for the construction of social values, beliefs and identities. From the discourse analytic perspective presented here, youth identities and affiliated phenomena as "class", "race" and "gender" can not be viewed as having prior essential characteristics independent of their formation and representation in discourse. There is a need for study of how and to what end youth are using texts and discourses to construct and reconstruct new identities and communities.
The application of critical discourse analysis to educational research will require nothing less than the development of a new sociology of educational discourse. Critical discourse analysis enables us to model of how language, text and discourse figure in the production and reproduction of educational outcomes. The focus of educational sociology historically has been on the structures, processes and consequences of educational institutions. A turn to the study of languages, discourses and texts will be needed if indeed we are to understand how educational institutions might make a difference in postmodern economies, nation states and cultures.

Educational Measurement Services

Educational Testing Services

The position of Measurement Statistician in the Statistics and Research Division involves directing, planning, and conducting statistical activities for large-scale paper and computer-based testing programs. This includes developing score interpretation materials and testing program publications through the application of statistical methods and indices. Measurement Statisticians provide statistical programming in support of special analyses related to testing program work and are responsible for score equating using classical test theory or item response theory; performing and interpreting data analyses (e.g., item analyses, reliability analyses, and differential item functioning analyses); and for other statistical and psychometric routines. Individuals also perform research in innovative assessment techniques and run data analysis routines using statistical software packages.
REQ'S FOR JR. LEVEL POSITION: A doctorate (or A.B.D. but must anticipate receiving doctoral degree within 6 months of hire) in educational or psychological measurement and statistics, educational psychology or a closely related field. Candidates must have at least one year of experience in educational measurement, applied statistics, or teaching. Experience may be gained through doctoral studies. In lieu of a doctoral degree, a master's degree with at least three years of experience is also acceptable.

REQ'S FOR MID-LEVEL POSITION: A doctoral degree in educational or psychological measurement and statistics, educational psychology, or a closely related field with at least three years of experience in an applied measurement or statistical analysis environment is required. In lieu of a doctoral degree, a master's degree with at least six years of experience is also acceptable.

Experience or education for both junior and mid-level positions must include applying and interpreting psychometric methods in at least two of the following areas: item analysis, factor analysis, scaling, equating, standard setting and/or item calibration. Candidates must also have experience in applying statistical procedures; application of classical test theory and item response theory; and use of statistical software packages.

Conventional Education System & Online Education System

Comparison Between

Conventional Education System &

Online Education System

Learning abilities differ from man to man. If this can be true then why can't there remain variation in the system of imparting education itself? Isn't it also obvious? In the ancient times the process of educating people depended on a school where the single teacher/master gave lessons to the pupils on different subjects. Then gradually with the progress of the civilizations schools began to form with proper administrative systems where subjects were categorized and teachers were recruited accordingly. In this system of education a specific pattern of teaching began to be conventionalized. The process of evaluation after successful completion of the course was done through an examination system. For ages this has remained the dominant way of spreading education where the construct of the school or the institute is very specific. But with time things change as well as the concepts. The latest trend in the education system is online education where the students can enjoy utmost freedom in the process of learning. You can remain engaged in all other works including the course you want to pursue. This is the major difference between the online education and conventional education systems. It would be better to state that the whole conception of online education holds a difference in the core that separates it from conventional education. You won't have concrete classrooms in online education where you can find a bunch of students attending lectures of their respective teachers. But you will get online classrooms where there may be one-to-one communication between the instructor and the student. There can be also a group of students interacting at the same time but it is a virtual setup. Both the systems of education do have some better things to give and also some unwanted things in store. As online education bothers about your personal convenience and comfort but it cannot provide you the lively feeling of a campus. You will miss the hues and cries of campus life and lack the socializing part among the friends circle that is an integral part of traditional system of education. In the similar way you cannot exercise your own choices in the way you want to undertake learning process in the conventional schooling structure. But online education gives you every privilege to follow so. As for the degrees you get through conventional and online education systems, it is still the conventional mode that is widely recognized. But days are not far when online degrees will take the lead.

Lifetime Education Degree

Lifetime Education Degree

Education is the process of learning and gaining information and skills. It is the process of transmitting or transferring or sharing of ideas and knowledge from generation to the next. Education is progressive by nature. It is never-ending and infinite. The concept of education is constantly changing. If education of the past can be compared in the present education, big differences can be noted. In the past education is simply learning general knowledge and skills. Today, education is not just learning general knowledge and skills, it entails selection of career or degree a person wants to pursue. This is because of the situation or setting of today that the world dictates. The world today dictates specialization. It dictates the pursuance of different careers. In order to have a career today, you need to pursue and finish an education degree. Pursuance of education degree today is a matter of personal choice not like in the past where the society is the one that determine the education degree to pursue. Education degree is any of a wide range of awards made by institutions of higher education such as universities and colleges, normally as the result of successfully completing a program of study. Education degree can also be defined as a title bestowed upon a student on the fulfillment of certain requirements or as an honor to an eminent person. Originally, there were only a few types of degrees offered. Today, different academic institutions grant approximately one thousand five hundred types of degrees. There are six categories of education degree: associate's degree, bachelor's degree, doctoral degree, foundation degree, law degree and master's degree. Associate degree is a degree awarded by community colleges, junior colleges and some bachelor's degree-granting colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study equivalent to the first two years in a four-year college or university. It is the lowest in the hierarchy of academic degrees offered. A bachelor's degree is usually an undergraduate education degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three or four years. Today, the most common undergraduate degrees given are the Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) and the Bachelor of Science (B.S.). The doctorate degree is an education degree of the highest level. Traditionally, the award of a doctorate implies recognition of the candidate as an equal by the university faculty under which he studied. Foundation degree is a vocational qualification. It is similar in level to the associate's degree. Foundation degrees intend to give a foundation in a subject that enables the holder to go to employment in that field. Law degrees are composed of degrees that focus of the study of laws, constitution and other subject regarding government and politics. Examples are Bachelor of Law, Candidate of Law, and Doctor of Law etc. A master's degree is an education degree usually awarded through completion of a postgraduate or graduate course of one to three years in duration. To be in an education degree, it is necessary to comply with the requirements of different colleges and universities. In choosing the education degree to take up, it is necessary to assess one self. Choosing an education degree is tough. A person should consider his interest and like. The capabilities should also be considered because it is very important in different careers.